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Protozoon-derived Exosomes
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Research
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Leishmania-derived Exosome
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Leishmania-derived exosomes actively manipulate host infection and exacerbate the development of cutaneous leishmaniasis pathology through the enrichment of virulence factors, including the metalloproteinase GP63 and several immunomodulatory proteins. And Leishmania RNA virus 1 was protected with Leishmania-derived exosomes, thus enhancing the stability and aggressiveness of their spread.
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Giardia-derived Exosome
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Donor release of Giardia-derived exosomes affected by different pH values and vesicle inducers has been studied. Moreover, inhibition of cholesterol using methyl-β-cyclodextrin resulted in inhibition of exosome release demonstrating the involvement of cholesterol in Giardia lamblia secretion of exosomes. Further proteomic analysis revealed that Giardia-derived exosomes carry Giardia antigenic proteins involved in immune escape from the parasite.
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Trypanosoma brucei-derived Exosome
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Trypanosoma brucei-derived exosomes were discovered to mediate innate immune escape by transferring serum resistance-associated proteins, which caused erythrocyte clearance and induced anemia. It has also been revealed that Trypanosoma brucei-derived exosomes induce differentiation of regulatory T cells through driving upregulation of CD3 and FoxP3 in T lymphocytes.
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Trypanosoma cruzi-derived Exosome
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Exosomes shed from Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes were able to stimulate bone marrow macrophages to express prostaglandin E2 and lipid droplets, which subsequently increased the risk of parasite infection and sustained parasite replication. Increased parasite parasitism was detected in Trypanosoma cruzi-derived Exosome pretreated peritoneal macrophages, confirming these views.
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Naegleria fowleri-derived Exosome
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It was revealed that Naegleria fowleri-derived exosomes were able to mediate immune responses and increase the risk of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis in the host, involving increased expression frequency of molecules such as CD86 and HLA-DR on the surface of monocytes.
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Trichomonas-derived Exosome
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RNA sequencing of Trichomonas-derived exosomes revealed the presence of small RNAs in their lumen consisting mainly of fragments of half of the 5′ tRNA. Moreover, it was observed in microscopy that Trichomonas-derived exosomes mediated communication between different parasite strains to enhance the formation of cytonemes and filopodia.
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Entamoeba-derived Exosome
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Proteomic profiling and GO analysis of Entamoeba-derived exosomes identified Gal/GalNAc lectin and calreticulin signature markers. Functional assays revealed that exosomes of Encysting Entamoeba origin promoted parasite encystation, whereas exosomes of Entamoeba trophozoites origin hindered encystation. Moreover, Entamoeba-derived exosomes were able to regulate stimulant-induced respiratory burst and NETosis of immune cells.
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Acanthamoeba-derived Exosome
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The researchers compared exosomes isolated from different genotypes of Acanthamoeba trophozoites, with functional assessments indicating that environmental, non-pathogenic Acanthamoeba-producing exosomes have stronger immune-stimulating protease-dependent functions compared to clinically pathogenic strains.
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Plasmodium-derived Exosome
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The human proteome and parasite proteome carried by subpopulations of Plasmodium falciparum-derived extracellular vesicles cultured in human erythrocytes at different growth stages have been profiled, as well as shown to contain relevant virulence proteins involved in parasite growth and infestation. These provide new insights into Plasmodium-derived exosome-mediated parasite pathogenesis and the development of drug resistance.
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Neospora-derived Exosome
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Neospora-derived exosomes have been shown to carry cargoes associated with Neospora caninum invasion and pathogenesis, including antigens and molecular regulators, and to contribute to the maintenance of host infection status. In addition, Neospora-derived exosomes hold promise to function as vaccines to partially protect immunized hosts from acute infection.
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Toxoplasma-derived Exosome
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There has been explored the possibility of immunization with Toxoplasma-derived exosomes to prevent and attenuate Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoite infections in mice models, significantly up-regulating post-infection survival in mice and increasing the levels of antibodies with neutralizing potency present in serum, informing the development of protozoan-derived vaccines.
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Fig. 1 Exosomes shed from different protozoa infect different cells.1
